Vitakkasaṇṭhānasutta: Un Camino Buddhista para la Superación de los Pensamientos Automáticos

Ven. Sajal Barua

Universidad de Peradeniya Sri Lanka

1. Introducción.

Los pensamientos automáticos son ideas espontáneas que surgen en la mente de un individuo dependiendo del marco particular de referencia que él posea como el de la personalidad, el estilo de vida, visión del mundo, etc. De acuerdo con Beck, esta estructura interna de creencias es siempre dependiente de la experiencia pasada del individuo, aprendizajes, etc. Las emociones angustiantes son el resultado de pensamientos mal adaptados.

En el buddhismo los pensamientos que distraen o automáticos se explican como que están conectados con codicia (lobha), aversión (dosa), e ignorancia (moha). Una mente llena de estas tres raíces del mal, se considera como ‘mente inferior’ justo como Beck considera el ‘nivel inferior’ de pensamiento. Una mente siempre funciona dependiendo del contacto entre las facultades sensoriales y sus objetos correspondientes. Un individuo reacciona, cuando entra en contacto con objetos sensoriales externos, de acuerdo a sus sensaciones respecto al objeto. Y su reacción emocional y su comprensión intelectual de ello no sólo depende de sus experiencias pasadas (de esta vida) sino de sus numerosas experiencias de sus vidas pasadas, lo que es calificado comosaṅkhāra en el buddhismo.

Siendo influenciados por saṅkhāra percibimos todo con una actitud subjetiva debido a la cual nos volvemos gradualmente víctimas de los pensamientos automáticos. Y esto resulta en un desbalance excesivo emocional tal como la depresión, la ansiedad, la obsesión, la insanidad mental, el desvalimiento, etc. Debido a esto, no sólo nosotros mismos sufrimos, sino que todos y todo alrededor nuestro se ve afectado.

Beck, en su terapia, usa un hábil interrogatorio para ayudar a sus pacientes a descubrir por ellos mismos la base irracional para sus problemáticas respuestas emocionales. El Buddha, en varios discursos, presenta más de un método para superar tales estados de la mente. Sin embargo, el presente estudio está dirigido a revelar un camino buddhista para superar los pensamientos automáticos en la luz del Vitakkaṇṭhāna Sutta del Majjhima Nikāya. El Sutta muestra de modo interesante cinco métodos alternativos con ejemplos apropiados; los cuales al seguirlos, uno no sólo supera los pensamientos automáticos, sino que se vuelve ‘un maestro en el curso de los pensamientos’ – (vitakkapariyāyavasī ). Los cinco métodos para superar los pensamientos automáticos son: 1) Dirigiendo la mente hacia un signo sano, 2) reflexionando en el peligro de tales pensamientos, 3) ignorando u olvidando a los pensamientos automáticos, 4) acallando el pensamiento de formación de los pensamientos automáticos, 5) por medio de apretar la lengua contra el paladar. Así, cada vez que el individuo supera los pensamientos automáticos, su mente se vuelve firme, silenciosa, unificada y concentrada. Pienso que este discurso tiene un atractivo práctico para la sociedad moderna y sería una importante aportación al campo de la psicoterapia.

2. Observación general

La teoría de los Pensamientos Automáticos primero fue introducida por Aaron Temkin Beck en su discusión de la Terapia Cognitiva en 1960 (nota 1). Pero en el siglo sexto a.c. nosotros encontramos al Buddha hablando de un concepto similar llamado ‘concepción del pensamiento’ o ‘pensamientos que distraen’ (vitakka) (nota 2) asociados con ‘la proliferación conceptual’ (papañca) (nota 3) con un análisis profundo y proporcionando las maneras de superar tales estados de la mente.

Sin embargo, en nuestro presente estudio del camino para superar pensamientos automáticos, centraremos nuestra atención principalmente en el Vitakkaṇṭhānasutta del Majjhima Nikāya. El sutta fue dado por el Buddha a un grupo de monjes comprometidos espiritualmente en el monasterio de Anāthapiṇḍika, en el bosque de Jeta en Sāvatthi. En el sutta el Buddha se dirige a los monjes diciendo: Cinco cosas deben de ser reflexionadas regularmente por el bhikkhu que está decidido a alcanzar una conciencia superior (nota 4). El comentario del sutta da detalles de lo que es una conciencia superior y porqué un bhikkhu debe reflexionar en las cinco cosas para elevarse a sí mismo a la conciencia superior. Explica: La conciencia que no es superior es la conciencia conectada con raíces malas o insanas. Los pensamientos que surgen en tal mente son pensamientos que distraen o automáticos, los cuales tienen consecuencias dañinas hacia la persona en la que surgen los pensamientos y hacia las cosas y los seres alrededor de él. El fin último del sutta es, como generalmente lo es en los discursos buddhistas, llevar al seguidor de su estado de sufrimiento hacia la absoluta paz y felicidad.

El presente estudio intenta mostrar que a pesar de que el sutta fue dado por el Buddha a un grupo de monjes espiritualmente comprometidos que pensaban en la conciencia superior, bien puede ser usado para cualquiera que desee deshacerse de los pensamientos que distraen o pensamientos automáticos.

En mi discusión me centraré en los siguientes puntos, los cuales son: (1) cómo el buddhismo define a los pensamientos automáticos y explica su origen y sus tipos, (2) el proceso o funciones de los pensamientos automáticos (3) los efectos de los pensamientos automáticos y razones para desarrollar la conciencia superior y (4) finalmente el modo de Vitakkasaṇṭhāna  para superar los pensamientos automáticos. Ocasionalmente también presentaré las ideas de Beck, no para comparar, sino para ampliar nuestro conocimiento en el tema.

3. Pensamientos Automáticos: Definición y Tipos

Cuando el sentido entra en contacto con los objetos sensibles, siempre hay cierto tipo de pensamientos que ronda la mente de uno. Ellos son automáticos, espontáneos, inevitables y habitualmente sin seguir una secuencia u orden apropiado. Estos son a los que nos referimos como ‘pensamientos automáticos’. Basados en diferentes grados de sensaciones, los pensamientos o procesos de pensamiento de uno también son influenciados. El Buddha señala explícitamente esta relación entre el proceso de pensamiento y las sensaciones cuando dice: “ Todo lo que surge en la mente está acompañado por las sensaciones”. (nota 5) La mente subconsciente siempre está respondiendo a ellas por medio de justificar en términos positivos o negativos. Beck se refiere a este ejemplo de justificación y pensamiento automático como “conversaciones internas que comunican auto-reproche o auto-crítica.” (nota 6) Algunos de estos no son percatados por la mente conciente  mientras algunos son profundamente arraigados. Por consiguiente, estos pensamientos automáticos profundamente arraigados, cuando se expresan en la mente conciente, se vuelven responsables de pensamientos positivos o negativos y acciones posteriores. “En desórdenes psicológicos, los pensamientos automáticos son frecuentemente distorsionados, extremos, o imprecisos de otra forma.” (nota 7)

Un ejemplo del trabajo de Beck ilustraría mejor este punto. Uno de sus pacientes describe la situación de la mente poseída por pensamientos automáticos de la siguiente manera: “Debo lamentarme hasta la muerte. No puedo vivir. He fallado. Sería mejor que no hubiera nacido… Soy la persona más inferior en el mundo. Soy un sub-humano.” (nota 8)

La conexión estrecha entre ‘vitakka’  y ‘vicāra’  (concepción de pensamiento y pensamiento discursivo) corresponden al concepto de pensamiento automático. Estos dos términos juntos, expresan “las funciones verbales (vacī saṅkhāra) de la mente, el tan llamado ‘discurso interno’.”(nota 9) A pesar de ciertas diferencias en las connotaciones ‘vitakka’  y ’vicāra’, son usadas de manera intercambiable. Por lo tanto, en el sutta de nuestro interés, vemos a ‘vitakka’  sin ‘vicāra’, usado para referirse al pensamiento automático o a la concepción de pensamiento. En este ejemplo tambiénvitakka incluye las funciones de vicāra en su campo. Respecto al uso del término, ha sido observado como sigue: “ En los suttas  la palabra vitakka se usa regularmente en el mero sentido de pensamiento, pero en el Abhidhamma es usado en un sentido técnico preciso para significar el factor mental que fija o dirige la mente sobre el objeto – (so hi āramme cittaṁ āropeti ).” (nota 10)

De acuerdo con el Visuddhimagga (nota 11) hay tres tipos de vitakka:

1. kusala-vitakka – concepción de pensamiento o pensamiento automático sano (hábil)
2. akusala-vitakka – concepción de pensamiento o pensamiento automático insano (no-hábil), y
3. upekkha-vitakka – concepción de pensamiento neutral

De esta clasificación, es claro que, de acuerdo con el buddhismo, no todos los pensamientos automáticos son malos. La positividad o negatividad de los pensamientos automáticos no están basadas en las convicciones de uno acerca de lo que se es capaz o no; sino que lo están en la cualidad de hábil o no-hábil de los pensamientos. Esto se justifica  por medio de observar si los pensamientos contienen algún contaminante o si en algún sentido están acompañados por deseos malignos, odio, e ignorancia. Por lo tanto el segundo tipo de pensamientos automáticos es clasificado como sigue:

1. kāma-vitakka, pensamientos automáticos conectados con la sexualidad o la sensualidad
2. byāpāda-vitakka, conectados con mala voluntad, y
3. vihiṃsā-vitakka, conectados con actitudes y acciones violentas (nota 12)

El factor akusala-vitakka puede ser comparado con los pensamientos automáticos negativos de Beck.

4. Pensamientos Automáticos: Sus procesos o funciones

Beck relaciona el proceso de pensamientos automáticos con el comienzo de las experiencias tempranas en la niñez. La apreciación o la culpa, que los niños reciben en la niñez, los conduce a ciertas creencias positivas o negativas acerca de ellos mismos. Estas estructuras de creencias están conectadas con los pensamientos automáticos en varias etapas de la vida. El proceso entero ha sido explicado por Beck en un modelo conocido como ‘el modelo del desarrollo cognitivo’ (nota 13) como sigue:

De acuerdo con el análisis buddhista, vitakka o el pensamiento automático es una parte del proceso de percepción de los seres. Ya ha sido indicado que los sentidos, entrando en contacto con los objetos sensoriales, generan ciertos pensamientos, a los cuales nos referimos como pensamientos automáticos. Por lo tanto los principales factores relacionados en este proceso son los sentidos (ejemplo: el ojo o cakkhu), los objetos sensoriales (ejemplo: la forma o rūpa) y la conciencia de los sentidos (ejemplo: conciencia del ojo o cakkhuviññāna). Ellos juntos generan ciertas sensaciones (vedanā) que uno pasa por alto por la facultad de la percepción (sañjānāti), y se razona al respecto (vitakketi ) y luego se diversifica o multiplica (papañceti ). (nota 14)

El proceso completo ha sido resumido en el siguiente cuadro por razones de comparación con el ‘modelo del desarrollo cognitivo’ de Beck:

El buddhismo muestra una relación estrecha entre los pensamientos automáticos o concepción del pensamiento (vitakka ) y diferenciación o pensamiento o proliferación conceptual (papañca). Por consiguiente: “Cualquier hombre concibe (vitakketi) que puede diferenciar; y lo que puede diferenciar, por razonar al respecto, ideas y consideraciones sobre diferenciaciones (papañca-sañña-sankhā) surgen en él.” (nota 15) En este proceso, lo que hay al principio, pensamientos automáticos simples y espontáneos, toman formas complejas. La función de la que ha sido referido como proliferación conceptual, ha sido catalogado en tres divisiones principales como:

1. Involucrados con deseo (taṇhā ). Esto incluye deseos de varios tipos. Estos han sido reconocidos como deseos pertenecientes a la sensualidad (kāmataṇhā ); deseo por, o adherencia a la existencia, no queriendo morir (bhavataṇhā ) mientras que la muerte es inevitable; y deseo por aniquilar esta existencia debido a la frustración y ciertas actitudes negativas (vibhavataṇhā ).
2. Creencias rígidas o erróneas (diṭṭhi ) en lo que respecta a lo que uno cree como perfecto. A pesar del hecho de que la gente experimenta un proceso de sociabilización en diferentes sistemas institucionales, ciertas visiones y creencias de los individuos son formadas basadas en sus propias experiencias sensoriales e interpretaciones a través de un sistema de comunicación interno, referido como vacīsaṅkhāra. Estas creencias son, algunas veces, muy contradictorias de lo que (y como) los individuos se espera que piensen. Mientras ellas puedan estar relacionadas a cualquiera de los tres deseos de arriba y definidos en términos egoístas, el buddhismo las considera como creencias incorrectas.
3. Presunciones o complejos (māna ). Este factor puede ser el más frecuente relacionado con los pensamientos automáticos. La mayoría de estos pensamientos automáticos son definidos en términos de la percepción propia acerca de uno mismo en relación con los demás. Como resultado, algunas veces uno puede sentirse superior a otros (seyyamāna o ati-māna), igual a los demás (sadisamāna), o inferior a los demás (hīnamāna). Éstas corresponden directamente a los tres tipos de complejos en la psicología. Los dos primeros tipos de presunción lo exaltan a uno de lo que realmente es, mientras que el último mina las capacidades de uno y consecuentemente causa depresión. Todas ellas proporcionan una visión distorsionada de la situación, no la realidad.

De esta discusión queda claro que el proceso del surgimiento de pensamientos automático es uno muy natural. Sin embargo, debido al factor de que las personas en general no están equipadas con el entrenamiento apropiado para interpretar estos pensamientos automáticos, ellas los involucran con sus gustos y sus desagrados que continúan para construir complejos de pensamiento (saṅkhāras). Las consecuencias de estos complejos de pensamiento, como veremos en el siguiente párrafo, son múltiples.

5. Efectos o Consecuencias de los Pensamientos Automáticos

De la anterior discusión, es claro que los pensamientos automáticos no son necesariamente positivos o negativos. Ellos surgen en la mente sin un esfuerzo deliberado, dependiendo de ciertas causas o condiciones. La inhabilidad para comprender el surgir condicionado de estos, hace que uno experimente cierta degradación emocional, ética o moral, y de la conducta. Observando los casos de sus pacientes, Beck observó que “ellos regularmente predicen el fracaso de ellos mismos y hacen interpretaciones negativas donde unas positivas hubieran sido más apropiadas.” (nota 16)

Los pensamientos automáticos positivos pueden fortalecer la confianza individual acerca de uno mismo, pero los negativos producirían emociones y conductas negativas y algunas veces destructivas, las cuales pueden traer desarmonía a ellos mismos y a la sociedad. Ellos pueden ser víctimas de depresiones, ansiedad en general, desórdenes, abuso de sustancias y otros problemas psicológicos.

Ya que el Buddha proclamó el discurso a los bhikkhus  o monjes que renunciaron a su vida de jefes de familia para alcanzar el Nibbāna, el Buddha relacionó la discusión entera con ese mismo objetivo. No obstante, los pensamientos automáticos tienen efectos de gran alcance en la vida diaria. Los pensamientos automáticos se vuelven dañinos cuando uno se ve atrapado por visiones incorrectas o distorsionadas acerca de uno mismo en lo particular y acerca del mundo externo en lo general. Por ejemplo, uno ha preconcebido grandes esperanzas acerca de alcanzar grandes resultados pero los pensamientos automáticos continúan interrumpiendo en varias formas, tales como: haciéndolo escéptico acerca de las esperanzas y las capacidades de uno mismo o dando objetos de concentración diferentes de aquellos que uno en realidad necesita o quiere. En el caso de los monjes, su objetivo central  está relacionado con alcanzar el Nibbāna; pero los pensamientos automáticos les dan varios objetos diferentes con el propósito de desviar lejos la atención. Uno que queda atrapado en la trampa, divaga acerca de estos pensamientos automáticos. Pero cuando uno se da cuenta que está desviado del objetivo central, uno se deprime, se disgusta y se frustra. Por lo tanto, es necesario estar libre de estos pensamientos automáticos, particularmente de los negativos, para alcanzar la paz de la mente y la interacción social armoniosa.

6. Hay solución: Un caso tradicional

Dado el hecho de que los pensamientos automáticos son espontáneos, surgen sin ningún aviso  y funcionan sin seguir un orden apropiado o disciplinado, produciendo resultados desagradables e inesperados, uno se pregunta si hay una liberación de esto. Buddha mencionó especialmente que uno sufre por los pensamientos automáticos cuando no hay una consideración correcta (yoniso manasikāra ) acerca de que está pasando dentro o fuera de la mente. Pero uno que está bien entrenado y es atento se vuelve conciente de estos sentidos entrando en contacto con los objetos sensoriales y los interpreta de manera objetiva sin exaltarse o deprimirse. Este hecho está bien descrito por el ejemplo tradicional del Ven. Nāgasamāla (nota 17). Aquí, cuando el Ven. Nāgasamāla vio a una mujer joven hermosamente vestida, bailando al acompañamiento de la música, de manera diferente a la demás gente, quien disfrutaría de la vista, él lo considero como una trampa puesta por Māra; y así, tomándolo como un objeto de meditación, alcanzó el estado de Arahant. De este ejemplo, entendemos que si él no hubiera percibido el objeto con consideración correcta, él hubiera caído en vitakka, vicāra y por último en papañca.

Monjes comprometidos espiritualmente, quienes tienden a desarrollar sus conciencias a niveles superiores, son aconsejados por el Buddha para seguir los cinco Vitakkasaṇṭhāna, formas para superar los pensamientos automáticos o vitakka. El mismo consejo es aplicable para las personas que sufren por los pensamientos negativos automáticos.

7. Vitakkasaṇṭhāna– Formas para superar los pensamientos automáticos:

A fin de liberarse de los pensamientos automáticos, el Buddha ha dado cinco tips de autoayuda. Cada uno de estos será expuesto con un ejemplo. Los cinco métodos para superar los pensamientos automáticos son dados a continuación seriados:

1.- Sustitución del pensamiento: Como en el ejemplo del Ven. Nāgasamāla, cuando hay caso de un pensamiento automático negativo, insano (akusalavitakka) uno lo remplaza con un pensamiento bueno o positivo (kusalavitakka).

2.- Escrutinio del pensamiento: Examinando la naturaleza y los aspectos negativos de estos pensamientos, puesto que ellos “son insanos, son censurables, resultan en sufrimiento.”

3.-  Ignorar o no prestar atención al pensamiento:  Sin ser afectados por el pensamiento automático, uno necesita ignorarlos y no prestarles atención para que así ellos decaigan automáticamente de la misma forma que como llegaron.

4.- Reasentamiento del pensamiento:  Uno cuestiona dentro de la mente propia acerca de los pensamientos que han surgido. “¿Cuál es la causa de este pensamiento inhábil? ¿Cuál es la condición? ¿Por razón han surgido? Pensando de este modo, la fuente de los pensamientos inhábiles y la fuente de la fuente deben ser reflexionadas por el yogi.”

5.-  Supresión por la fuerza: Si ninguno de los anteriores funciona, uno tiene que desviar su atención a objetos diferentes a la fuerza. El ejemplo dado en el sutta para esto es: “Con sus dientes apretados y la lengua contra el paladar, él debe vencer, obligar y aplastar la mente con la mente.” (nota 18)

Cuando los pensamientos automáticos persiguen la mente uno debería de tratar uno de estos métodos para superarlos. El último debe de ser practicado si ninguno de los otros sirve. De este modo, cuando un monje (bhikkhu) o alguien supera los pensamientos automáticos negativos, luego uno es llamado: “un  maestro del curso del pensamiento.” Él (luego) piensa cualquier pensamiento que él quiera pensar y no pensará ningún pensamiento que no desee pensar. Él ha sacado el deseo, ha arrojado los grilletes y con la completa penetración de la presunción, él ha puesto fin al sufrimiento.

8. Conclusión

Hemos visto que Beck estaba muy interesado acerca del pensamiento automático. Usó terapia cognitiva y el Inventario sobre depresión de Beck, descubierto por él, para tratar que son víctimas del pensamiento automático. El método incluye entrevistas; auto-supervisión, muestreo del pensamiento, escalas y cuestionarios, etc. (nota 19) Los terapeutas cognitivistas que siguieron a Aaron Beck han estado investigando en estos aspectos y desarrollando la literatura y conceptos enormemente. Sin embargo, el análisis buddhista de la naturaleza, la función y métodos de pensamiento automático y discusiones acerca de estos, han llegado a nosotros de las palabras del Buddha. Por más de un periodo de dos milenios no ha habido adiciones o ediciones a lo que el Buddha ha dicho, excepto el hecho de que en el siglo cinco de la era actual, los suttas fueron comentados por el Venerable Buddhaghosa. Esos comentarios sólo ilustran las Enseñanzas del Buddha gramaticalmente y dan ejemplos para una mejor comprensión, sin cambiar ninguna de las palabras del Buddha. Incluso, el análisis y los métodos discutidos anteriormente pueden contribuir mucho a la presente discusión de los pensamientos automáticos. Esto es de un gran significado práctico.

El análisis buddhista de los pensamientos automáticos tiene una dimensión ética y soteorológica. En cualquier situación dada los pensamientos están conectados con deseo (lobha), odio (dosa), e ignorancia (moha). Por lo tanto son malos e insanos. El objetivo de este análisis es levantar seres de niveles inferiores de pensamiento a conciencias superiores (adhicitta). Uno busca la mente superior porque es regocijante y opuesta a una mente abrumada por los pensamientos automáticos negativos caracterizados por la ansiedad y el sufrimiento. En esta forma, practicando el camino recomendado por el Buddha, uno alcanza el estado supremo de intelectualidad, moralidad, y pureza espiritual.

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Referencias

1. T Beck (1967), Depression: Causes and treatment, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia.
2. T Beck (1976), Cognitive Therapy and Emotional Disorders, International University Press, New York.
3. T Beck (1999), Prisioners of Hate – the Cognitive Basis of Anger, Hostility and Violence, Perennial Harper Collins.

Aṅguttaranikāya, Mūlakasutta, VIII.ix. 3 (83). Remitido del Chaṭṭhasaṅghāyayana CD-Rom (CSCD).

Bhikkhu Bodhi (ed. y tr.) A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma: The Abhidhammattha Saṅgaha de Acariya Anuruddha.

1. B. Horner (1954), [tr.] Majjhimanikāya I, PTS, Londres.

Nelson Jones, Rechard (2001): Teory and Practce of Counselling & Therapy (3ra edición), Continuum, Londres.

Malalasekhara, G. P. Dictionary of Pāli Proper Names, New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation, 1983.

Nyanatiloka (1970), Buddhist Dictionary: Manual of Buddhist Terms and Doctrines, BPS, Kandy.

Richard S. Sharf (2004), Theories of Psychotherapy and Counselling: Concepts and Cases, Thomson Learning, Inc., USA.

Ven. Nyanamoli Thera (1977 reprint), A Treasury of the Buddha´s Words, Volume II, editado y arreglado por Phra Khantipalo, Mahāmakut Rājavidyālaya Press, Bangkok.

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Notas:

1- Nelson Jones, Rechard (2001): Teory and Practce of Counselling & Therapy (3ra edición), Continuum, Londres. p.330.«

2- I. B. Horner (1954), [tr.] Majjhimanikāya I, PTS, Londres. p. 119.«

3- Ibid. pp. 111-112«

4- Ven. Nyanamoli Thera (1977 reprint), A Treasury of the Buddha´s Words, Volume II, editado y arreglado por Phra Khantipalo, Mahāmakut Rājavidyālaya Press, Bangkok. p.103.«

5- Aṅguttaranikāya, Mūlakasutta, VIII.ix. 3 (83). Remitido del Chaṭṭhasaṅghāyayana CD-Rom (CSCD).«

6- Richard S. Sharf (2004), Theories of Psychotherapy and Counselling: Concepts and Cases, Thomson Learning, Inc., USA. p.358.«

7- ibid. p.361.«

8- A. T Beck (1967), Depression: Causes and treatment, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. p.38.«

9- Nyanatiloka (1970), Buddhist Dictionary: Manual of Buddhist Terms and Doctrines, BPS, Kandy. p.205.«

10- Bhikkhu Bodhi (ed. y tr.) A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma: The Abhidhammattha Saṅgaha de Acariya Anuruddha. p.56.«

11- Nyanatiloka (1970), Buddhist Dictionary: Manual of Buddhist Terms and Doctrines, BPS, Kandy. p.205.«

12- Estos tres vitakkas son abandonados por el esfuerzo de superación (pahānapadhānaṁ) – [D. III, p.226] y deben ser remplazados por nekkhamma-vitakka, avyāpāda-vitakka y avihiṁsā-vitakka – [A. I, pp. 275-276; II, p.76; III, p.429].«

13- Richard S. Sharf (2004), Theories of Psychotherapy and Counselling: Concepts and Cases, Thomson Learning, Inc., USA.«

14- Este análisis es tratado con detalle en el Madhupiṇḍikasutta del Majjhimanikāya.«

15- Nyanatiloka (1970), Buddhist Dictionary: Manual of Buddhist Terms and Doctrines, BPS, Kandy. p.123.«

16- Richard S. Sharf (2004),op. cit. p.358.«

17- Malalasekhara, G. P. Dictionary of Pāli Proper Names, New Delhi: Oriental Books Reprint Corporation, 1983. Vea Nāgasamala.«

18- Ven. Nyanamoli Thera (1977 reprint), op. cit. p.105.«

19- Richard S. Sharf (2004), ver pp.357-399 para una clara comprensión de la terapia cognitiva.«

source: http://portalbuddhista.net/node/229

Overcoming Cankers (āsava) in Daily Life!*

Āsava(s) together with latent tendencies (anusaya), fetters (saṃyojana) and hindrances (nīvaraṇa) constitute the unwholesome cognitive and emotive aspect of mind.[1] What bind beings in the cycle of samsāra are these unwholesome psychological contents eradication of which brings about the absolute peace of mind (nibbāna).

The term āsava is formed with the prefix ā and the verbal root √sru (to flow). Literally it means ‘that which flows (out or on to)’, ‘outflow’ & ‘influx’.[2] Different scholars give different renderings of the term into English. Some of the renderings are: ‘cankers’, ‘taints’, ‘corruptions’, ‘intoxicant biases’[3], ‘ideas which intoxicate the mind’[4] etc.

Āsava is such an important topic that the discussion of it occupies a number of passages in the entire Pāli canon. In most cases it is discussed as an unwholesome mental constituent that intoxicates the mind of beings and thus they are unable to rise themselves to higher things. It is some kind of unwholesome mental force that exists in the mind of unenlightened men. And it flows out to the external world through the six (sense) organs of the body. Thus it makes people ‘losing the way and falling into the cycle of birth and death’.[5]

Āsava(s) are compared to a swift stream into which all unenlightened beings are being drifted away. To get rid of the stream one must get onto the raft of dhamma. Pāli canon mentions of various ways following which one can get rid of āsava(s). We shall discuss those ways later. Before that we shall know what those āsava(s) are. The passages in the Pāli canon frequently mentions of three āsava(s), namely; (1) kāmāsava – canker of sense desire, (2) bhavāsava – canker of existence, and (3) avijjāsava – canker of ignorance.[6] There is also a list of four āsava(s). In this list the one that is added is diṭṭhi-āsava – the canker of views.[7] Scholars[8] are of the opinion that the list of three is probably older than that of the four.

Āsava(s) are sometimes compared to kilesa for they contribute to defile the thoughts of beings and thus produce evil. They are also enumerated in the sense of fetter for they tie beings down and keep them from enjoying the true freedom of mind. And as it is mentioned above āsava(s) are also to be understood as a swift stream or flood (ogha) for they carry beings away in the ocean of saṃsāra.

Some of the many ways mentioned in the Tipiṭaka to overcome āsava(s) are briefly presented below. The āsava(s) could be overcome by ‘reflecting on the loathsomeness of the body, food etc. and contemplating on impermanence and death’.[9] They could also be overcome by ‘following the noble eightfold path’[10]; ‘cultivating five spiritual faculties’[11]; ‘practicing mindfulness of breathing’[12] etc. However, the most effective way to overcome āsava(s) is through the understanding of four noble truths.

The Buddha says “the destruction of canker is for him who knows and sees, not for him who does not know and see.”[13] Thus in the Sabbāsava Sutta of Majjhimanikāya and the Āsava Sutta of Aṅguttaranikāya, seven ways of eradicating cankers are systematically enumerated. It is interesting to note that in both the discourses āsava(s) are explained totally from a different perspective than the āsava(s) mentioned above. From the description of āsava(s) in these two discourses we know that in our everyday life we always encounter āsava(s). The discourses also provide us with appropriate methods of overcoming those āsava(s) which we will discuss in the subsequent paragraphs of the essay.

The seven ways of overcoming āsava(s) are given below. Āsava(s) should be abandoned (1) by seeing, (2) by restraining, (3) by proper use, (4) by enduring, (5) by avoiding, (6) by removing and (7) by developing. The statement that ‘the destruction of āsava(s) is for him who knows and sees and not for him who does not know and see’ demonstrates that if anyone is not aware of his present being it is not possible for him to destroy āsava(s). Not just being ordinarily aware of one’s own being but being aware with wise attention (yoniso manasikāra). In other word being aware of one’s own being with unwise attention (ayunoso manasikāra) is not encouraged. Because by doing so one’s unarisen cankers (of sensual desire, of being and of ignorance) arise and arisen cankers develop.

A man who attends to things unwisely is an untaught ordinary person, who has no regard for the noble ones or true men. He is unskilled and undisciplined in dhamma. Such a person is indeed ignorant of the real nature of existence as impermanence, unsatisfactory and non-substantiality. Having no knowledge about the three fundamental characteristics of existence he dwells in complete illusion (moha/māya). He regards impermanent as permanent, suffering as happiness, non-substantiality as substantiality and impure as pure. This happens due to the absence of correct vision regarding the real nature of existence which is to be understood as avijjāsava in this context. The grossest illusion in the life of a man is ‘believing in the existence of self’ (sakkāyadiṭṭhi). Venerable Nyanatiloka in his Buddhist Dictionary says, “(the view that) has most misled and deluded mankind is the personality-belief, the ego-illusion”.[14] This ego-illusion mainly is of two kinds, namely; (1) eternity belief – sassatadiṭṭhi, and (2) annihilation belief – ucchedadiṭṭhi.

However, in the Sabbāsava Sutta the ego illusion is explained to be manifested in 16 ways in the mind of beings. As for example the individual thinks; ‘was I in the past? was I not in the past? what was I in the past? how was I in the past? having been what, what did I become in the past?’ etc. Thus he thinks in the same way with regard to his future and present being. When he thinks in this way there arises in him one of following six views. They are:

• Self exists for me
• No self exists for me
• I perceive self with self
• I perceive not self with self
• I perceive self with not self and
• It is this self of mine that speaks and feels and experiences here and there the result of good and bad actions; but this self of mine is permanent, everlasting, eternal, not subject to change, and it will endure as long as eternity.

These are all speculative views that arise in the mind of beings due to ignorance and unwise attention. The Buddha says, “This speculative view, bhikkhus, is called the thicket of views, the wilderness of views, the contortion of views, the vacillation of views, the fetter of views.”[15] The untaught ordinary beings wander about in the saṃsāra experiencing all sorts of agony due to being fettered by the fetter of views. The only way to overcome such fetter as this is by attending wisely to the four noble truths.

As we have seen earlier āsava(s) are sometimes called ‘outflow’ because they flow out through the six sense organs to the external world and produce evil. This should clearly be understood with reference to the perceptual process enumerated in the Madhupiṇḍika Sutta[16]. In summery there it says that it is natural that the mind and matter will interact with each other. The six sense organs will come into contact with the six sense objects. The problem occurs when we try to make it personal by putting our ego-consciousness. When we react with the natural process of perception with our judgmental attitude of either liking or disliking, we subsequently become the helpless victim of the process and thus experience constant agony. The phrase used to describe this aspect of our mind is ‘conceptual proliferation’ – papañca-saññā-saṅkhā. Therefore, constant guarding of sense doors (indriya-saṃvara) is encouraged by the Buddha.

The next three types of āsava(s) enumerated in the sabbāsava and āsava sutta(s) are āsava(s) that have extreme practical significance in the life of men and that could be eliminated just by being little bit aware of the situation one is in. It is a fact that to survive in life everyone needs the four requisites, namely food, clothing, lodging and medicine. An individual is overcome by āsava(s) regarding these four requisites when he, forgetting the real purpose, uses them improperly. According to the Buddhist understanding food should be taken to terminate the old feeling of hunger without arousing new feeling. Elsewhere in the canon the moderation (mattaññutā) in eating is also elaborated. Both the overconsumption and fasting are discouraged by the Buddha. Instead the middle way in the consumption of not only food but of everything is explained as an ideal mean which facilitate to the progress of the spirituality. Clothing too is to be used not for the show off (as it is the case for most people) but to protect one’s boy from gadflies, mosquitoes, wind, the sun etc. and also to conceal the private parts. It is the same for lodging and medicine too. They are to be used for leading a healthier life so that the individual can progress in the spiritual path. However, in today’s materially progressed modern world the rich people live a life of extreme luxury, while a great number of poor people suffer from the lack of having four requisites. Thus inequality is an obvious phenomenon in the world.

The next two of the three āsava(s) are enduring and avoiding. In life we face certain situations which if we are unable to endure or avoid, suffering becomes inevitable for us. The text mentions of things such as; cold, heat, hunger, thirst, creeping things, wild bull, horse, dog, elephant etc. However, besides these unpleasant things, in society we come into contact with people or environment that are not so friendly and act like enemy. In such situation if we have any chance of leaving for more agreeable environment, that is ok, but if we do not have any other option than living in such environment, it is better to endure it without reacting. For we can not alter the situation anyway.

The last two ways of overcoming āsava(s) are by removing and developing. Certain unwholesome mental factors namely the thoughts of sensuality (kāmavitakkaṃ), of ill-will (vyāpādavitakkaṃ), and of cruelty (vihiṃsāvitakkaṃ) are āsava(s) that should be overcome by removing. And the removal of these unwholesome mental factors is possible with the development of certain wholesome mental qualities. The immediately following and the last way of overcoming āsava(s) mentioned is the way of developing. What are the wholesome mental qualities should be developed by one? They are the seven factors of enlightenment (satta-bojjhaṅga), namely; 1) Mindfulness (sati), 2) investigation of the law (dhamma-vicaya), 3) energy (viriya), 4) rapture (pīti), 5) tranquility (passaddhi), 6) concentration (samādhi), and 7) equanimity (upekkhā). They are called the factors of enlightenment because they, if properly practiced, lead to the enlightenment.

Therefore from the above discussion we come to the conclusion that to lead a peaceful and happy live everybody needs to overcome āsava(s). We have seen that the Sabbāsava Sutta and the Āsava Sutta very clearly and systematically present the ways to overcome āsava(s) in our day to day life. The most important thing for one who wishes to overcome āsava(s) is to be aware of his present being, as the texts say, by ‘knowing’ and ‘seeing’. And the awareness should be accompanied by wise or proper attention. Buddhism always emphasizes on the investigation into the causes of what is happening into and around an individual and act accordingly. For it is his attitude and understanding of nature that determines his experiences – be it good or evil.

***********************

Abbreviations:

DN      = Dīghanikāya

MN      = Majjhimanikāya

SN       = Saṃyuttanikāya

AN      = Aṇguttaranikāya

It         = Itivuttaka

Vibh    = Vibhaṇga

Ps        = Paṭisambhidamagga

NBD   = Nyanatiloka’s Buddhist Dictionary

PED    = Pali English Dictionary (of Rhys Davids)

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References:

1. Malalsekera, G.P. (et al, ed.) (1997). Encyclopaedia of Buddhism. Sri Lanka: The Government of Ceylon.
2. Rhys Davids, T.W. and Stede William. (eds.) (1997). Pali and English Dictionary. New Delhi: Asia Educational Services.
3. Ven. Nyanatiloka, 1988 (1952), Buddhist Dictionary (Manual of Buddhist Terms and Doctrines), Kandy: BPS.
4. Buddhadatta, A.P. Concise Pāli English Dictionary, Dehiwala: Buddhist Cultural Centre.

——————————————————————————–

* All the references made are of PTS edition unless otherwise stated.

[1] Premasiri, P.D. Mind in ‘Encyclopaedia of Buddhism’, p. 06.

[2] Rhys Davids, T.W. and Stede William. (eds.) (1997). Pali and English Dictionary, London: PTS.

[3] Venerable Nyanatiloka, 1988 (1952), Buddhist Dictionary, Kandy: BPS.

[4] Concise Pāli-English Dictionary of A.P. Buddhadatta.

[5] EPB – Vol II, p. 202.

[6] Some of the passages that discuses the three āsava(s) are: M.I, 55; A.I, 165; III, 414; S.IV, 256; V, 56, 189; It.49; Vbh.364.

[7] Passages that discuss four āsava(s) are: D.II, 81, 84; A.I, 165; Ps.I, 94 etc.

[8] āsava in NBD and PED.

[9] A. III, 83.

[10] S. V, 28.

[11] S. V. 236: faith, vigor, mindfulness, concentration, and wisdom.

[12] S. V, 203.

[13] S. V, 434; M. I, 07.

[14] Nyanatiloka, p 52.

[15] M. I, 8. (Bhikkhu Bodhi’s translation is adopted here).

[16] M. I, 111-112.

Buddhist Education in Bangladesh: Challenges and Possibilities

Introduction:

This essay is an attempt to provide a survey on learning and teaching of Buddhist
scriptures in the modern day Bangladesh. In this essay I will especially focus on the periods between 19^th and 21^st century C.E. First I will give a brief discussion on the history of the Buddhist education during Pāla Daynasty (8^th to 12^th century C.E.). The main focus will be put on the challenges that the Buddhist education is experiencing due to various reasons such as economic, social, and political and so on. Finally, I will make an attempt to find out the possibilities in order to meet the challenges and thus commence a new horizon to the study of Buddha’s teachings in the original languages.

Defining ‘Buddhist-Education’:

Buddhist-education means studying or learning the teachings of the Buddha and that of
his enlightened disciples. It usually refers to the teachings contained in the three baskets (tipiṭaka). But through extensive research scholars have come to an agreement that of the three baskets the abhidhamma–piṭaka and most texts in the khuddaka–nikāya developed or added to the tipiṭaka later. There are also controversies with regard to the authenticity of the vinaya collections. Therefore, the first four nikāya-s – Dīgha, Majjhima, Saṃyutta, and Aṅguttara nikāya-s, which are common to all Buddhist schools, are regarded as the most authentic teachings of the Buddha. So, being educated in the teachings of the Buddha, strictly speaking, should refer to an in depth study of these four nikāya-s.

Study of Buddha’s teachings does not mean just going through the texts and understanding the words and meanings therein. One should be fully aware of the specific purpose of the teaching conveyed in a particular text or discourse. The reader should be able to establish an intimate connection to the text he/she is studying. Unfortunately, many Buddhist institutes are not concerned with this matter. We see in today’s world attempts are being made to establish Buddha as an economist, political leader, psychologist, environmentalist, social reformer and so on, and Buddhism to be a system of economy, a guide for psychology, and politics and so on. We often forget that Buddha is simply a teacher (satthā) who was concerned only about the dissatisfactoriness (dukkha) of saṃsāric life and its end (dukkha–nirodha =nibbāna).[1] Without a thorough knowledge of this purpose a learner is far from obtaining the expected benefits.

The teaching actually is compared to a poisonous snake, which one should handle
carefully in case he/she is bitten by it and suffer from its poison.[2] The Buddha said his teaching should be regarded like a raft to cross the ocean of saṃsāra and reach the supreme bliss – nibbāna.[3] One should not study it just to engage in arguments or to refute others in disputation. The Buddha regarded education as the best amongst all miracles.[4] It is by proper education that one transforms from bad to good. In fact, it should be the purpose of the Buddhist education. In the words of SN Goenka, a rewound meditation master of 21^st century, – ‘we should try to convert people from misery to happiness, from bondage to liberation and from cruelty to compassion’.[5] This is what is obtained by following the instructions of the Buddha. The guidelines and educations given by the Buddha throughout the Pāli Canon is on how to practice a brāhmacāriya life which will eventually lead to the freedom from all sorts of psycho-physical sufferings (dukkha). So, the study of Buddhist texts should be a practice in itself, if not, it challenges the credibility of ‘Buddhist-education’.

Vaṅga, Bengal and Bangladesh:

The modern Bangladesh got its name after its separation from Pakistan in 1971. Geographically it is bordered by India to its west, north and east; Burma to its southeast and Bay of Bengal to its south. Since 1947 till its separation, politically it was under the Pakistani government and was known as East Pakistan. Prior to that, during British period (1957-1947), it was part of ethno-linguistic region of the large Bengal constituting East and West Bengals.

During the 6^th century B.C. it was probably part of Magadhan kingdom. Because of it being geographically close to the Magadha, it is believed that Buddha might have visited Bengal.  Also the great Vangīśa, who was one of Buddha’s great disciples, was from Bengal. Further, ‘Vaṅga’ was mentioned in the list of cities during Buddha’s time. And Vijaya, an abandoned prince of Vaṅga, was one who established his kingdom in Sri Lanka and was said to be the ancestor of Sri Lankan Buddhists. So, there is probability that Buddhism was prevalent in the present day Bengal at the time of the Buddha and also at the subsequent periods. However, here I shall focus on the study and practice of Buddhism especially in the Pāla Dynasty and in the modern Bangladesh.

Historical Background (circa 8^th to 12^th C.E.):

During the Pāla dynasty, Buddhism was the predominant religious force especially in the north eastern India. Bengal, which constitutes the present day Bangladesh and the West Bengal, was the main center for Buddhism. It was the Mahāyāna and Tantric form of Buddhism that was prevalent at this period. The Pāla kings were so devoted to Buddhism that they have built a number of large monasteries and centers for Buddhist studies. The Nālandā, Vikramaśila, Sompura Vihāra are some examples to mention. They had also supported to the progress of Hinduism in the country by establishing Śiva and Vaiśnava temples and so on.

Gopāla established the Pāla Dynasty in 750 C.E. The period prior to that was a period of total chaos both socially and politically.  Gopāla, the first king of Bengal, re-established the lost peace and harmony among the people and thus founded a righteous kingdom. Following him about 20 kings ruled the kingdom for about 400 years. The Pāla kingdom expanded to present day Bihar, Baranasi and Mithila. They have even reached as far as Tibet and Malay islands.

The contribution made by the Pāla kings for the propagation of Buddhism is compared to that of King Asoka.  They have contributed in literature, philosophy, and architecture and so on. ‘Charyapada’ – also called ‘Charyagīti’ – the text that became the source of Assamese, Bangla, Hindi, and Orissa language and literature, was the first text ever produced in this period. This was discovered by a great scholar Haraprasad Shastri from the National Library of Nepal in 1907.[6] The text is a collection of mystic songs by various Siddhācaryas recording the religious and socio-political situations of the Pāla dynasty.

According to J. L. Barua the Pāla kings built about fifty Buddhist temples and learning centers, of which thirty five were centers for learning Prjñāpāramitā (perfection of wisdom) texts.[7] But apart from only Buddhist texts other secular subjects such as medicine, political science, arts and crafts, fine arts, architectures were also being taught. Here I shall present brief details about a few significant Buddhist monasteries and learning centers built in this dynasty.

Sompura Mahāvihāra: It was situated in the Naoga district. It was built by the king Dhammapāla. The length and breadth of the temple is 922 feet from south to north and 919 feet from east to west. It has got a total of 177 rooms for the residents to live, study and practice their religious life. It is said that the great masters like Advayavajra, Atulyapāda and Atisha stayed in this monastery and translated a great number of Buddhist texts into Tibetan language.

Vikrampurī Mahāvihāra: This monastery was situated in the Munsiganj District. It was a center for tantric Buddhism. Close to this monastery, Atisha was born in a place called Vajrajoginī. It was one of the important centers destroyed by the Turkish soldiers.

Pandita Vihāra: It was situated in Chittagong District. It is said that most of the Siddhas or Panditas who went to different places including Tibet to propagate dhamma received education at this monastery.

Śālbana Vihāra: It was situated in the Maynamati District. The monastery was built by the king Bhabadeva in the 8^th century C.E. It is said that of fifty geological sites it was the only residential learning center in Maynamati.

Apart from temples mentioned above there were many other temples like Jagaddal Vihāra, Śitakuṭa Vihāra, Bāsu Vihāra, Kanaksthūpa Vihāra etc.

Besides building Buddhist monasteries and education centers, the Pāla Dynasty is famous for its contribution to the arts and architectures. During this period a number of statues of various Buddhas and bodhisattvas were created. Among the Buddhas were Vairocana, Akshobhya, Ratnasambhava, Amitābha and Amoghasiddhi and among the bodhisattvas was Avalokiteśvara and so on.

Education in Pāla Dynasty:

The Buddhist education started with the Buddha himself who for his extraordinary teaching methods and capacity was called ‘the teacher of men and gods’ – (satthā devāmanussānaṃ). The goal of his teachings was to lead a complete happy, healthy and peaceful life. The focus was to develop positive mental qualities such as metta (loving kindness), karunā (compassion), muditā (sympathetic joy) and upekkhā (equanimity). For the Buddha, education is the best miracle (anusāsani–pathihāriya). Following this line of thoughts the Buddhist monasteries and universities in the Pāla dynasty introduced two types of education system: one for monastics and the other for laity. Basically five disciplines (pañca–vidya) were taught at those monasteries. They are: 1) grammar, 2) science of arts and crafts, 3) medical science, 4) logic, and 5) philosophy. According to the records of I-tsing, a Chinese Buddhist pilgrim monk,[8] there were two types of schools – one internal and the other external. The internal school was for the students who were committed to learn the texts in the tipiṭaka and be prepared for their brāhmacāriya life. The external school would teach secular subjects like agricultural science, business studies, and so on.[9] Each monastery and university had a huge library with great number of books.

So, it is said that during the 400 years of Pāla dynasty India became prospered in knowledge, literature, philosophy, arts and so on. This period produced a number of great Buddhist savants like Shantarakkhita, Atisha, Shilabhadra, Naropa, Tilopa and many more who travelled around the world and propagated Buddhism.[10] But after the Pāla dynasty it was a dark period for about six hundred years for the Buddhists in India as well as in Bengal.

The Dark Period (circa 13^th to 18^th C.E.):

The Pāla Dynasty was succeeded by the Sena Dynasty (circa 1100 to 1200) which lasted only for about a hundred years. The Sena kings were more sympathetic to the Brāhmanism. They have neglected the Buddhist monasteries and universities. As a result the Buddhist centers started becoming non-functional. Furthermore, an attempt was made to convert Buddhist temples into Hindu temples, and the images of the Buddhas and bodhisattvas into Hindu avatars and gods and goddesses. In this regard Ācarya Dinesh Chandra Sen says; “the Buddhist gods and goddesses found their place in Hindu temples and the Hindus owning them completely denied the Buddhist debts”.[11]

However, the final destruction began with the invasion of Islamic rulers in 13^th C.E. In the beginning of 13^th century, Ikhtiyar Uddin Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji, a Turkish military general, with only eighteen horsemen, attacked Lakkhan Sen, the last King of the Sen Dynasty and established the Khilji dynasty in Bengal. Subsequently many troops from Afgan came to Bengal and destroyed the Buddhist and Hindu temples and universities. Some say, the Khilji thought the temples to be castles and the monks to be soldiers. But this remark is questionable. The Khilji not only killed the monks, but destroyed the Buddhist arts and architectures and burnt the large number of books in the libraries. It is said that the libraries had been burning for 3 months. Those who survived the attack escaped with whatever texts and statues of Buddhas and bodhisattvas they could take to the neighboring states such as Tibet, Nepal, Urissa Arakan, Pegu and Pagan. Rakhal Das Bandopadhyay thinks it is due to that reason most of the texts of Pāla dynasty are found in those countries especially in Nepal.[12] One of the most famous Buddhist scholars of that period who escaped to Sri Lanka was Ram Candra Kabi Bharati.[13] He was a scholar of Śruti, Smṛti, Āgama, Grammar, Logic and also Astrology. Realizing his scholasticism Parakramabahu, the Sri Lankan king awarded him with ‘Bouddha Āgama Cakravarti’ and made him his teacher. During the Khilji dynasty the Hindu and the Buddhist temples were converted to mosques and dargah.[14] Dr. Md. Shahidullah, in this regard, says that ‘the large group of Hindus and Muslims swallowed the Buddhists’.[15] Thus since 13^th century till the British colonization in 18^th century, it was a dark period for about six hundred years for Buddhists in Bengal.

Revival of Buddhism (circa 18^th to 21^st C.E.):

In 1757, the East India Company of British, defeating the last Nawab of Bengal, Sirajuddaula,[16] established its reign in Bengal. One of the contributions made by the British in Asia is establishing education centers. In 1784 they established Asiatic Society. They also funded the researchers who discovered different social, cultural and historical resources. They discovered different Buddhist archeological sites in India as well as in Bengal.  Among the people, although there were mainly two groups: Muslims and Hindus, there were some people who were alienated from them. They might be Buddhist, but most of their practices were similar to that of the Hindus. But soon it became clear that they were the descendants of the Buddhists. So even after the British colonization begins it took one hundred years for the Buddhists to be completely aware of their identity and thus work for reestablishing it.

In 1857, the Arakanese monk Sāramedha Mahāthera, with the request of Radhacaran Mahāsthabir, came to visit Chittagong and observed the existing Buddhists and their practices which were not so different from the Hindus. So, he decided to introduce a correct form of Buddhism by re-ordaining the existing ‘Buddhist monks’. Since he did not have a complete saṅgha to call for the upasamada, he went back to Arakan. Before leaving he was honored and probably requested by the Chakma Queen Kalindi, leading the Buddhist community of the time, to come again and protect the Buddhism in Bengal. During this time there was a monk from Chittagong called Candamohan who was eager to learn Buddhism. So he first went to Calcutta and then to Arakan and was re-ordained under Sāramedha. In 1963, Candramohan received the title ‘Punnācāra Dhammadhārī’ from the Burmese saṅgha. Afterwards he went to Sri Lanka where he studied Buddhism and returned to Bengal in 1964 with a group of Sri Lankan monks from Rāmāññā Nikāya and established a proper Theravāda monastic saṅgha. In the same year Sāramedha from Arakan came to Chittagong with a group of monks and re-ordained the existing Buddhist monks and established the Saṅgharāja Nikāya which is functioning till now. However, there was another group of monks who did not join this saṅgha is now known as Mahāsthabir Nikāya. Practically the practices in both the Nikāyas are the same. So, the form of Buddhism that was started in Bangladesh was a mixed Theravāda Buddhism.

Buddhist Education:

The Buddhist studies began in Bengal in the mid-19^th century C.E. with the
establishment of first ever Pāli school (tole) in Pahartali, Chittagong by Ācarya Punnācāra with the financial support from Haragobinda Mutsuddi in 1885. In 1902, Sarananda, a Sri Lankan monk, established a second Pāli school in the same area. Subsequently many similar Pāli schools were established in different parts of Chittagong – Rajanagar, Satbaria, Unainpura, Mirjapur etc. Thus the study of Pāli Buddhism set off its journey in Bengal. Fulcandra Barua and Pandit Dharmaraj Barua are two of the pioneer Bengali Buddhist scholars who composed texts like Pādimukh (Pātimokkha), a text of monastic discipline, and Maghā-khamujā, a text of Apādāna literature. These were the first two texts written in Bengali language. The types of texts produced in this period were mainly Bengali translations of important Pāli texts both philosophical and ethical, Pāli grammars, and some handbooks indicating the Buddhist way of life. Following chart will give an idea of the kind of Buddhist studies that was prevalent during mid-19^th to mid-20^th century. Here I present some selected writings of a few scholars.

Apart from them there were other scholars who have contributed significantly in the study of Buddhism in Bangladesh. Kabi Sarbananda Barua, Agrasar Mahasthabir, Bangshadip Mahasthabir, Dharmabangsa Mahasthabir, Bhagabancandra Mahasthabir, Pandit Shilacar Shastri, Pandit Dharmadhar Mahasthabir, Shilalankar Mahasthabir, Jotipal Mahasthabir, Shantapada Mahasthabir are but some to mention.

Buddhist studies have been continued at three different levels: 1) at Pāli schools, 2) at monasteries, and 3) at the secular institutions. Only a small number of monks and laity went to the Pāli schools and received the textual knowledge. Most people received their Buddhist ethical knowledge from monks in monasteries. And those perusing degrees joined secular institutions.

In 1868, three Buddhist model schools were established – at Mahamuni Pahartali, Satbaria and Harbang – where Pāli and Buddhist studies were must.[17] Dr. BM Barua, a renowned ideologist from Bengal, received his first Pāli lesson from Dharmavangsa Mahasthabir at the Mahamuni Anglo-Pali High School in Pahartali. In 1899, a Pāli department was opened in Calcutta University. Dr. Barua together with Dr. Nalinakkha Dutt again received their Buddhist education from the same Dharmavangsa Mahasthabir in Calcutta University in 1908. Pāli was introduced at the Chittagong Government College in 1906. Subsequently departments of Pāli studies were opened at the University of Dhaka (1921), Rajshahi (1955), and Chittagong (1968). They provide BA, MA and PhD degrees. At present many schools and colleges in Bangladesh provides Pāli and Buddhist education. But due to lack of learned professors in the field the quality of education is subject to question.

Further, besides the Pāli and Buddhist Studies at secular institutions, a new horizon began in 1969 with the establishment of ‘Bangladesh Sanskrit and Pali Education Board’. It introduced a nine year course for Pāli Studies. The course includes the study of tipiṭaka – sutta, vinaya and abhidhamma – each of which is studied for three subsequent years as ādya (preliminary), madhya (advanced) and upādhi (title). Completing sutta studies in three years one obtains a certificate titled ‘suttavisārada’ (skilled in suttas). Similarly with the completion of vinaya and abhidhamma one receives the titles ‘vinayavisārada’ (skilled in vinaya) and ‘abhidhammavisārada’ (skilled in abhidhamma) respectively. Currently there are about 50 centers under this boar all around the country.

One significant feature of the Buddhists in Bengal, since the revival of Buddhism in the 18^th century, was that, they had been publishing different Buddhist magazines, journals, and periodicals. Two of the oldest Buddhist journals that had been set off in the early 20^th century are ‘Jagajjyoti’ and ‘Sanghashakti’. ‘Jagajjyoti’ was founded by the Kripasharan Mahasthavir (1865-1927) in 1908 in West Bengal[18] and ‘Sanghashakti’ was founded by Pragyalok Mahasthavir (1879-1971)[19] in 1928 in Rangoon (present Yangon), Myanmar. Both the journals had had published innumerable substantial essays and articles on Buddhist studies done by many internationally reputed scholars. The two Mahasthavir had also established centers like Baouddha Dharmankur Sabha and Bouddha Mission Press where Buddhist seminars had been held frequently.

Challenges and Possibilities:

Even though there are a number of centers for Pāli and Buddhist studies, the Buddhist education in Bangladesh is experiencing a great many challenges and difficulties. The challenges may be identified as social, political and economical. The first and foremost challenge may be economical. Buddhists in Bangladesh have to straggle constantly for their survival. Being a minority community they have to fight for even their basic needs. Even though a Buddhist is well qualified it is not at all easy to get a suitable job. So, most Buddhists live on farming. Thus it is difficult for them to support the Buddhist education.

Secondly, there are very few possibilities of job after finishing Buddhist education in temples or even in universities.

Most of the texts that have been produced since mid-19^th century are not available now. Some of them that exist need to be re published. But due to lack of enough financial support it is not being possible. In most secular institutions where there are Buddhist subjects, they are usually taught by a Hindu if not a Muslim teacher. The posts in the institutes are limited. So, there are no much opportunities for a Buddhist teacher to join. The temples are occupied with different rites and rituals. At present there is no independent Buddhist institute that is totally devoted to the study of Buddhism. The social situation is such that the young generations do not have any interest in the Buddhist studies.

However, there is still hope for positive changes. Like Ācarya Punnācāra, who went to study Buddhism in Burma and Sri Lanka in the mid-19^th century, now also many young Buddhist monks from Bangladesh went abroad to pursue their Buddhist studies. To my knowledge there are a number of students studying in the Pāli, Sanskrit and Buddhist fields in India, Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, Hong Kong, Japan, Canada and USA. Most, if not all, of them have been doing their studies with lots of financial difficulties. Because like the Buddhist monks from other countries, they are not supported by either their families or temples. So, if there were scholarships offered depending on merits, many of them would probably do much better in their studies. And if, in future, there is international support they will be able to establish an independent Buddhist institute in their motherland and go back to the country to teach Buddhism to the upcoming generations.   

Conclusion:

Buddhists in Bangladesh left behind a glorious past in the Pāla Dynasty. It had suffered grave decease in the Sultan Dynasty. It had revived in the 19^th century. At present Buddhist studies and practices are just about a hundred and fifty years old. It cannot be said that we have accomplished enough in the study of Buddhism; however, we are proud of our achievements in such a short period of time. But we are worried about the future of Buddhism in Bangladesh because of the recent challenges that we have been facing. If there is cooperation from the neighboring Buddhist communities and countries we will definitely be able to overcome all the challenges.

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References:

• বড়ুয়া, জিতেন্দ্র লাল, বাংলাদেশ বৌদ্ধধর্ম ও বৌদ্ধ সম্প্রদায়, (Buddhism and Buddhist Community in Bangladesh) ঢাকাঃ বাংলা একাডেমী ঢাকা, ১৯৯৯।
• বড়ুয়া, অধ্যাপক শিমুল, অনোমা, (Anoma-a yearly Journal) রজত জয়ন্তী স্মারক গ্রন্থ, চট্রগ্রামঃ অনোমা সাংস্কৃতিক গোষ্ঠী, ২০০৮।
• বড়ুয়া, নূতন চন্দ্র, চট্রগ্রামে বৌদ্ধ জাতির ইতিহাস, (History of the Buddhists in Chittagong) চট্রগ্রামঃ কনিকা অ্যাড, ২০১১।
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[1] M I 140.

[2] M I 133.

[3] M I 135.

[4] D I 217.

[5] http://www.dhamma.org/en/about/goenka, accessed on 2^nd September 2014.

[6] J. L. Barua, p. 51.

[7] Ibid, p. 58.

[8] http://www.banglapedia.org/HT/I_0144.htm, accessed on 2^nd September 2014.

[9] J.L. Barua, p. 71.

[10] Ibid, p. 65.

[11] Quoted by J. L. Barua, p. 88.

[12] J. L. Barua, p. 93.

[13] Sarkar, Jayanta (et al), ed. ‘Populations of the SAARC countries – bio cultural perspectives’, New Delhi: Sterling publishers privet limited, 2004, p. 79.

[14] A Dargah is a Sufi Islamic shrine built over the grave of a revered religious figure, often a Sufi saint or dervish (see: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dargah).

[15] J. L. Barua, p. 97.

[16] A native governor of Mogul Empire. See: http://www.banglapedia.org/HT/S_0492.htm.

[17] Dr. Sukomal Barua, p. 139.

[18] See Kripasharan Mahasthavir at http://www.banglapedia.org/HT/M_0069.htm, accessed on 3^rd September 2014.

[19] See Pragyalok Mahasthavir at http://www.banglapedia.org/HT/M_0070.htm, accessed on 3^rd September 2014.